Human life will never be understood unless its highest aspirations are taken into account. And yet there are also other regressive, fearful, self-diminishing tendeticies as well, and it is very easy to forget them in our intoxication with "personal growth," especially for inexperienced youngsters. I con- sider that a necessary prophylactic against such illusions is a thorough knowledge of psychopathology and of depth psychology.
We must appre- ciate that many people choose the worse rather than the better, that growth is often a pain f ul process and may for this reason be shunned, that we arc afraid of our own best possibilities in addition to loving them S 14 and that we are all of us profoundly ambivalent about truth, beauty, virtue, loving them and fearing them too Freud is still required reading for the humanistic psychologist his facts, not his mcta- physics.
I should like also to recommend an extraordinarily sensitive book by Hoggart which will certainly help us to understand corn- passionately the pull toward the vulgar, the trivial, the cheap and the fake in the less educated people he writes about. Chapter 4, and Chapter 6 on "The Instinctoid Nature of Basic Needs," coiistitutc for me the foundation of a system of intrinsic human values, human goods that validate themselves, that are intrinsically good and desirable and that need no further justification.
This is a hierarchy of values which are to be founel in the very ssence of human nature itself. These are not only wanted and desired by all human beings, but also needed in the sense that they are necessary to avoid illness.
I want to be sure to mention here, even though I do not have the space for expanding impon the idea, that it is legitimate and fruitful to regard instinctoicl basic needs and the metaneeds as rights as well as needs. This follows immediately upon granting that human beings have a right to be human in the saine sense that cats have a right to be cats.
In order to be fully human, these need and metaneed gratifications are necessary, and may therefore be considered to be natural rights. The hierarchy of needs and metaneeds has been helpful to me in another way. That is to say, that in any judging of the motivations for a person's behavior, the character of the judge also has to be taken into account. He chooses the motivations to which he will attribute the behavior, for instance, in accord with his generalized optimism or pessimism.
I find the latter choice to be made far more frequently today, so frequently that I find it useful to name the phenomenon "downievelling o the motivations. A purely materialistic motivation is preferred to a social or meta;notivatcd one, or to a mixture of all three. I think that any com- plete theory of motivation must include this additional variable. And of course I am sure that the historian of ideas would find it very easy to lind many examples, in different cultures and in different tinies, of either a general trend to downievelling or uplevelling of human mo- tivations.
At the moment of writing, the trend in our culture is very clearly toward widespread downlevelling. The lower needs are being heavily overused for explanatory purposes and the higher and metaneeds are being badly underused. In my opinion this tendency rests far more on preconception than an empirical fact. I find the higher needs and metaneeds to be fai more determinative thati my subjects themselves suspect, and certainly far, far more than contemporary intellectuals lare - admit.
Obviously, this is an empirical and scientific question, and just as obviously it is far too important a matter to be left to cliques and in-groups. I had added to Chapter 5 on gratification theory a section on the l athIOI- ogy of gratification. Certainly this is something that we were not pteporel for fifteen or twenty years ago, that pathological consequences might ensue after having attained what one had been trying to attain, and which was supposed to bring happiness.
We have learned with Oscar Wilde to beware of what we wish-for the tragedy may come about that our wishes may be granted. This seems to be possible at any of the mo- tivational levels, whether the material, or the interpersonal, or the transcendent. We can learn from this unexpected finding that the gratification of the basic needs does not in itself automatically bring al out a system of values in which to believe and to which one may commit himself.
Appar- ently we function best when we are striving for something that we lack, when we wish for something that we do not have, and when we organize our powers in the service of striving toward the gratification of that wish.
The state of gratification turns out to be not necessarily a state of guar. It is a moot state, one that raises problems as well as solving problems. This discovery implies that for many people the only definition of the meaningful life that they can think of is "to be lacking something essential and to be striving for it. The ordinary, widespread philosophy of a meaningful life is, therefore, a mistaken one, or at least an imma- ture one.
In brief, what I have observed is thai. Certainly happiness does corne and is obtainable and is real. But it looks as if we must accept its intrinsic transience, especially if we focus on its more intense forms. Peak experiences do not last, and cannot last. Intense happiness is episodic, not continuous. But this amounts to a revision of tise theory of happiness that has ruled us for three thousand years and that has determined our concepts of heaven, of tise Garden of Eden, of the good life, the good society, the good person.
Our love stories have traditionally ended "And they lived happily ever after. So also, for instance, have we been over-sold-and consequently disillusioned-by the very real though limited improve- ments in our society. We were over-sold on the benefits of labor union- ism, of women's suffrage, of the direct election of Senators, of the graded income tax, and of many other improvements that we have built into, e. Each one of them was supposed to bring a milleniuni, eternal happiness, the final solution of all prob- lems.
The result lias tended to be disillusionment after the fact. But disillusionment means that there had been illusions. But we can no longer reasonably expect perfection to come to pass, or permanent happiness to be achieved. I must call attention also to what has been overlooked almost universally even though now it seems very obvious, namely that the blessings we have already achieved come to be taken for granted, to be forgotten, to drop out of consciousness, and finally, even, not to be valued any more -at least until they are taken away from us see also For instance, it is characteristic of the American culture as I write this preface in January, , that the undoubted advancements and improvements that have been struggled for and achieved through years are being flicked aside by many thoughtless and shallow people as being all a fake, as being of no value whatsoever, as being unworthy of fighting for or protecting, or valuing, just because the society is not yet perfect.
The present struggle for women's "liberation" will serve as a single example I could have chosen dozens of others to illustrate this complex but important point, and to show how many people tend to think in a dichotomous and splitting way rather than in a hierarchical and integra- tive way. In general it may be said that today, in our culture, the young girl's dream, a dream beyond which she cannot see, is most often of a man who falls in love with lier, who gives her a home, and who gives her a baby.
In her fantasies she then lives happily ever after. But the fact o the matter is that no matter how much one longs foi- a home or for - a baby, or for a lover, that sooner or later one can become sated with these blessings, will take them for granted, and will start to feel restless and discontented as if something were lacking, as if something more had to be attained.
The main point of Grumble Theory, and of HierarchicalIntegrative Theory of Needs, is that it is immature and unwise to 'think of these as mutually exclusive alternatives. It is best to think of the discontented woman as profoundly wishing to hang on to everything that she has and then-like the labor unionists-asking for ,norc!
That is to say that she generally would like to keep all her blessings and have additional ones as well. But even here it is as if we have not yet learned this eternal lesson, that whatever she yearns for, a career or whatever, when it is achieved the whole process will repeat itself.
I offer for thought the real possibility that if we become fully aware of these human traits, if we can give up the dream of permanent and un- interrupted happiness, if we can accept the fact that we will be only transiently ecstatic and then inevitably discontented and grumbling for more, that then we may be able to teach the general population what self-actualizing people do automatically, i.
It is possible for a woman to have all the specifically female fulfillments being loved, having the home, having the baby and then, without giving up any of the satisfactions already achieved, go on beyond femaleness to the full humanness that she shares with males. The great advances of the last decade or so in the science of genetics lias forced us to assign somewhat more determin- ing power to the genes than we did fifteen years ago.
Most important of these discoveries for the psychologists has been, I think, the various things that can happen to the X and Y chromosomes: doubling, tripling, loss, etc. Chapter 9, "Is Destructiveness Instinctoid? Perhaps these developments in genctics may help to make my posi- tion more clear and communicable than it apparently has been.
Cur- rently, debate on the role of heredity and environment is almost as simplistic as it has been for the last fifty years. It still alternates between a simplistic theory of instincts on the one hand, total instincts of the sorts found in animals, and on the other hand, a complete rejection of the whole instinctual point of view in favor of a total environmentalism.
Both positions are easily refuted, and in my opinion are so untenable as to be called stupid. In fact, the techniques of psycho- analysis and other uncovering therapies, let alone the 'quest for identity," may all be conceived as the very difficult and delicate task of discovering through the overlay of learning, habit, and culture, what our instinct- remnants and instinctoid tendencies, our weakly iildiCate i essential nature may be.
In a word, man lias a biological essence, but this is very weakly and subtly determined, and needs special hunting techniques to discover it; we must discover, individually and subjectively, our animal- ity, our specieshood. So fai as society is con- cerned, this seems to me to be an extremely strong argument in favor of absolute equality of opportunity for every baby born into the world.
It is also an especially powerful argument in favor of the good society, since human potentials are so easily lost or destroyed by the bad environ- ment. This is quite apart from the contention already put forward that the sheer fact of membership in the human species constitutes ipso jacto a right to become fully human, i. Being a human being-ui the sense of being horn to the human species-must be defined also in terms of becoming a human being.
In this sense a baby is only potentially a human being, and must grow into humanness in the society and the culture, the family. Ultimately titis point of view will force us to take far more serioisly than we do the fact of individual differences, as well as species member- ship.
We will have to learn to think of them in this new way as being, I very plastic, superficial, easily changed, easily stamped out, but pro- ducing thereby'all sorts of subtle pathologies. This leads to the delicate task, 2 of trying to uncover the temperament, the constitution, the hidden bent of each individual so that he can grow unhampered in his own individual style.
This attitude will require far greater attention than has been given by the psychologists to the subtle psychological and physiological costs and sufferings of denying one's true bent, sufferings that are not necessarily conscious or easily seen from the outside.
This, in turn, means much more careful attention to the operational meaning of "good growth" at every age level. Finally, I must point out that we shall have to prepare ourselves in principle for the shaking consequences of giving up the alibi of social injustice. Whom shall we blame when a baby is boum with a bad heart, or weak kidneys, or with neuro- logical defects?
In this chapter, and also in other papers, I have introduced the concept of "subjective biology. I hope this discovery, that one can and must study one's own biology introspectively and subjectively, will be of hei1 to others, especially to biologists. Chapter 9 on 1 estrtmctivcness has been extensively reworked. I have sub- sumed it under the more inclusive category of the psychology of evil, hoping to demonstrate by this careful treatment of one aspect of evil, that the whole problern is empirically and scientifically workable.
Bring- ing it under the jurisdiction of empirical science means for nie that we an confidently look forward to steadily increased understanding whelm always has meant being able to do something about it. Aggression, we have learned, is both genetically and culturally deter- mined. Also i consider extremely important the distinction between healthy and unhealthy aggression.
Just as aggression cannot be blamed entirely on either society or inner human nature, so also is it already clear that evil in general is neither a social product alone or a psychological product alone.
This may sound too obvious to be mentioned, but there are today many people who riot only believe in these untenable theories but who act I1Ofl them as well. I have introduced in Chapter lO, "The Expressive Component of Be- havior," the concept of Apollonian controls, Le, desirable controls which do not endanger gratification but rather enhance it. I consider this concept to be profoundly important both for pure psychological theory and foi- applied psychology. The psychoanalyst will notice that this solution overlaps to some extent with Freud's integration ol pleasure principle and reality principle.
To think through the similarities and differences will, T think, be a profitable exercise for the theorist of psychodynamics. In Chapter 1 on self-actualization I have removed one source of con- 1 fusion by confining the concept very definitely to older people.
By the criteria I used, self-actualization does not occur in young people. In our culture at least, youngsters have not yet achieved identity, or autonomy, nor have they had time enough to experience an enduring, loyal, post- romantic love relationship, nor have they generally found their calling, the altar upon which to offer themselves. Nor have they worked out their own system of values; nor have they had experience enough responsibil- it ' for others, tragedy, failure, achievement, success to shed perfection- istic illusions and become realistic; nor have they generally made their peace with death; nor have they learned how to be patient; nor have they learned enough about evil in themselves and others to be compas- sionate; nor have they had time to become post-ambivalent about parents and elders, power and authority; nor have they generally become knowl- edgeable and educated enough to open the possibility of becoming wise; nor have they generally acquired enough courage to be unpopular, to be unashamed about being openly virtuous, etc.
In any case, it is better psychological strategy to separate the concept of mature, fully-human, self-actualizing people in whom the human potentialities have been realized and actualized f'omn the concept of health at any age level.
This translates itself, I have found, into "good- growth-toward-self-actualization," a quite meaningful and researchable concept. I have done enough exploration with college age youngsters to have satisfied myself that it is possible to differentiate "healthy" from "unhealthy. Young people arc unsure of themselves, not yet formed, uneasy because of their minority position with their peers their private opinions and tastes are more square, straight, metarnotivated, i.
They are secretly uneasy about the cruelty, meanness, and mob spirit so often found in young people, etc. Only longitudinal studies can determine this. I have described my self-actualizing subjects as transcending national- ism.
I could have added that they also transcend class and caste. This is true in my experience even though I would expect a priori that affluence and social dignity arc apt to make self-actualization more probable. Another question which I did not anticipate in my first report has been this: Arc these people capable of living only with "good" people and in a good world only?
My retrospective impression, which of course remains to be checked, is that self-actualizing people are essentially flex- ible, and can adapt themselves realistically to any people, any environ- ment. I think they are ready to handle good people as good people.
Another addition to the description of self-actualizing people emerged from my study of "grumbles" and the widespread tendency to undervalue one's already achieved need-gratifications, or even to devalue them and throw them away. Self-actualizing persons are rela- tively exempted From this profound source of human unhappiness, in a word, they are capable of "gratitude.
Miracles remain miracles even though occurring again and again. The awareness of undeserved good luck, of gratuitous grace, guarantees for them that life remains precious and never grows stale. My study of self-actualizing persons has worked out very well-to my great relief, I must confess. It was, after all, a great gamble, doggedly pursuing an intuitive conviction and, in the process, defying some of the basic canons of scientific method and of philosophical criticism.
Accordingly, my explorations proceeded against a background of anxiety, conflict, and self-doubt. Enough verifications and supports have accumulated in the last few decades see Bibliography so that this kind of basic alarm is no longer necessary. And yet I am very much aware that these basic methodological and theoretical problems still confront us. The work that has been done is a bare beginning. We are now ready for far more objective, consensual and impersonal team methods of selecting self-actualizing healthy, fully.
Cross-cultural work is clearly indicated. Follow-ups, from the cradle to the grave, will furnish the only truly satisfactory validation, at least in my opinion. Nor do I think we can ever understand irreducible human evil until we explore more fully than I did the "incurable" sins and the shortcomings of the best human beings we can find. Such studies I am convinced will change our philosophy of science , of ethics and values , of religion , of work, management and interpersonal relations , of society , and who knows what else.
In addition, I think that great social and educational changes could occur almost immediately if, for instance, we could teach our young people to give up their unreal perfectionism, their demands for perfect human beings, a perfect society, perfect teachers, perfect parents, perfect politicians, perfect marriages, perfect friends, perfect organizations, etc.
Such expectations we already know, even with our inadequate knowledge, arc illusions and, therefore, must inevitably and inexorably breed disillusionment along with attendant disgust, rage, depression and revenge.
The demand for "Nirvana Now! If you demand a perfect leader or a perfect society, you thereby give p choos- ing between better and worse. If the imperfect is defined as evil, then everything becomes evil, since everything is imperfect. L believe also, on the positive side, that this great frontier of research is.
Here lies the value system, the religion-surrogate, the idealism- satisfier, the normative philosophy of life that all human beings seem to need, to yearn for, and without which they become nasty and mean, vulgar and trivial.
Psychological health not only feels good subjectively but is also correct, true, real. In this sense, it is "better" than sickness and superior to it. Not only is it correct and truc, but it is more perspicuous, seeing more truths as well as higher truths. That is, the lack of health not only feels awful but is a forni of blindness, a cognitive pathology as well as moral and emotional loss.
Furthcrmore, it is a form of crippling, of loss of capacities, of lesser ability to do and to achieve. Healthy persons exist even though not in great numbers. Health with all its values-truth, goodness, beauty, etc.
For those who prefer seeing to being blind, feeling good to feeling baci, wholeness to being crippled, it can he recommended that they seek psychological health.
The same is true of a good marriage, a good friendship, good parents. Not only arc these desired preferred, chosen , but they are also, in specific senses, "desirable. Thc demonstration that wonderful people can and do exist-even though in very short suppiy, and having feet of clay-is enough to give us courage, hope, strength to fight on, faith in ourselves and in our own possibilities for growth.
Also, hope for human nature, however sober, should help us toward brotherliness and compassion. A positive psychology is at least available today though not very widely. The humanistic psychologies, the new transcendent psychologies, the existential, the Rogerian, the experiential, the holistic, the value-seeking psychologies, are all thriving and available, at least in the United States, though unfortunately not yet in most de- partments of psychology, so that the interested student must seek them out or just stumble across them.
For the reader who would like to taste for himself, I think a good sampling of the people, the ideas and the lata is most easily available in the various books of readings by Mousta- kas , Severin , Bugental 69 , and Sutich and Vich For addresses of the appropriate schools, journals, societies, I would recommend the Eupsychian Netwok, an appendix in my book, Toward a Pcychology of Being see For uneasy graduate students I would still recommend this last chapter in the first edition, which is probably available in most uni- versity libraries.
Also recommended is my Psychology of Science for the same reasons. For those who are willing to take these questions seriously enough to work hard at them, the great book in the field is Polanyi's Personal Knowledge This revised edition is an example of the increasingly firm rejection of traditionally value-free science-or rather of the futile effort to have a value-free science.
To some this will seem like an assault upon the science that they. I accept that their fear is sometimes well founded. There are many, especially in the social sciences, who see total political commitment by definition in the absence of full informa- tion as the only conceivable alternative to value-free science and mutsi- ally exclusive with it.
Embracing the one means for them necessarily rejecting the other. That this dichotomizing is sophomoric is at once by the simple fact that it is best to get col-recE inFormation even when you are fighting an enemy, even when you are avowedly a politician.
But quite beyond this self-defeating foolishness, and addressing our- selves to this very serious question at the highest levels of which we are capable, I believe it can be shown that normative zeal to do good, to help mankind, to better the world is quite compatible with scientific objectivity and indeed even makes conceivable a better, a more powerful science with a far wider jurisdiction than it now has when it tries to be value-neutral leaving values to be arbitrarily affirmed by non-scientists on noii-factual grounds.
This is achieved simply by enlarging our con- ception of objectivity to include not only "spectator-knowledge" laissez- faire, uninvolved knowledge, knowledge about, knowledge from the - outside but also experential knowledge 85 and what I may call love-knowledge or Taoistic knowledge. The simple model of Taoistic objectivity comes from the phenom- enology of disinterested love and admiration for the Being of the other B-love.
For instance, loving one's baby, or friend, or profession, or even one's "problem" or field in science, can be so complete and accepting that it becomes non-interfering, non-intrusive, i. It takes great love to be able to leave something alone, to let it be and to become. One caii love one's child that purely, letting him become what is in him to become.
One can love it enough to trust also its becoming. Lt is possible to love one's baby even before it is born, and to wait with bated breath and with great happiness to see what kind of person it will be, and now to love that future person. A priori plans for the child, ambitions for it, prepared roles, even hopes that it will become this or that-all these are non-Taoistic.
Such a baby is born into an invisible straitjacket. Similarly, it is possible to love the truth yet to come, to trust it, to be happy and to marvel as its nature reveals itself. One can believe that the uncontaminated, unmanipulated, unforced, undemanded truth will be more beautiful, more pure, more truly true than that same truth would have been had we forced it to conform to a priori expectations or hopes or plans or current political needs.
Truth also can be born into an "invisible straitjacket. But this is not at all a necessity for the more Taoistic scientist who can love the truth- yet-to-be.
I too believe this: that the purer the truth, and the less contaminated it is by doctrinaires whose minds are made up in advance, the better it will be for the future of mankind.
I trust that the world will be more bene- fited by the truth of the future than by the political convictions which I hold today. I trust what will be known more than I trust my present knowledge. This is a humanistic-scientific version of "Not my will but Thine be done. At many points in this book, and in many publications since, I have assumed that the actualization of a person's real potentialities is condi- tioned upon the pesence of basic-need satisfying parents and other people, upon all those factors now called "ecological," upon the "health" of the culture, or the lack of it, upon the world situation, etc.
Growth toward self-actualization and full-humanness is made possible by a com- plex hierarchy of "good preconditions. And simultaneously one is heartened by the fact that self-actualizing persons do in fact exist, that they are therefore possible, that the gauntlet of dangers can be run, that the finish line can be crossed. The investigator here is almost certain to be caught in a cross-fire of accusations both interpersonal and intrapsychic, about being either 'optimistic" or "pessimistic," depending on where he is focusing at the moment.
So also will he be accused from one side of being hereditarian, from the other of being environmentalist. Political groups will certainly try to plaster him with one or another label, depending on the headlines of the moment. The scientist of course will resist these all-or-none tendencies to dichotomize and rubricize, and will continue to think in terms of degree, and to be holistically aware of many, many determinants acting simul.
He will try as hard as he can to be receptive to the data, dif- ferentiating them as clearly as he can from his wishes, hopes, and fears. It is now quite clear that these problems-what is the good person and what is the good society-fall well within the jurisdiction of. I have written a good deal on the subject since when this book first appeared, but have refrained from trying to incorporate these findings into this revised edition.
Ins ead i will refer the reader to some of my writings on the subject , , , 3lla, SUb, , and also urge as strongly as i can the necessity of becoming acquainted with the rich research literature on normative social psychology called vari- ously Organizational Development, Organization Theory, Management Theory, etc. The implications of these theories, case reports and re- searches seem to me to be profound, offering as they do a real alternative, for instance, to the various versions of Mandan theory, of democratic and authoritarian theories, and of other available social philosophies.
I am again and again astonished that so few psychologists are even aware of the work of, for instance, Argyris 15, 16 , Bennis 42, 43, 45 , Likert , and McGregor , to mention only a few of the well-known workers in the field. If I were to choose a single journal to recommend to the person who wishes to keep in touch with the current developments in this area, it would be the Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences, in spite of its totally misleading title.
Finally, I wish to say a word about this book as a transition to human- istic psychology, or what has come to be called Third Force. Immature though it yet is from a scientific point of view, humanistic psychology lias already opened the doors to study of all those psychological phenom- ena which can be called transcendent or transpersonal, data which were closed off in principle by the inherent philosophical limitations of behaviorism and Freudianism.
Among such phenomena I include not only higher and more positive states of consciousness and of personality, i. Already a new Journal of Trans- personal Psychology has begun publishing on these subjects.
It is possible already to start thinking about the transhuman, a psychologyand a philosophy which transcends the human species itself. This is yet to come. Laughlin Charitable Foundation for granting me a resident fellowship which gave me the time and freedom to do this revision. Theoretical work of this kind-thinking problems through to their depths-is a full-time job. Without this fellowship I would not have undertaken it. I wish also to acknowledge with thanks the fellowship granted to me for the year by the Fund for the Advancement of Education of the Ford Foundation.
Kay Pontius did not only all the secretarial work that the book entailed but helped with the Bibliography, editing, proofreading, and many other jobs. This was all donc efficiently, intelligently, and cheerfully.
I wish to acknowledge her hard work and to thank her for it. I wish also to thank Mrs. Hilda Smith, my former secretary at Brandeis University, for her help in getting this work started before I left the university. Marylyn Morrell generously helped with the Bibliogra- phy. George Middendorl of Harper Row suggested to me this revised edition and now I am glad that he did. I have acknowledged many of my intellectual debts in my other books, and in the Bibliography of this book, and will not repeat them here.
I wish to thank the many friends-too many to mention-who helped me by listening, by conversations, and by debating. My wife, Bertha, who got this kind of sounding board treat- ment every day, almost always managed to be patient and helpful. I wish here to thank her for her help and to marvel at her patience. A psychological interpretation of science begins with the acute realization that science is a human creation, rather than an autonomous, nonhuman, or per se "thing" with intrinsic rules of its own.
Its origins are in human motives, its goals are human goals, and it is created, renewed, and main- tained by human beings. Its laws, organization, and articulations rest not only on the nature of the reality that it discovers, but also on the nature of the human nature that does the discovering. The psychologist, espe- cially if he has had any clinical experience, will quite naturally and spon- taneously approach any subject matter in a personal way by studying people, rather than the abstractions they produce, scientists as well as science.
The misguided effort to make believe that this is not so, the persistent attempt to make science completely autonomous and self-regulating and to regard it as a disinterested game, having intrinsic, arbitrary chesslike rules, the psychologist must consider unrealistic, false, and even anti- empirical. In this chapter, I wish first to spell out some of the more important truisms on which this thesis is based.
Some implications and consequences of the thesis will then be presented. These are the needs that are best known to psychologists for the simple reason that their frustration produces psychopathology.
Less studied but knowable through common observation are the cognitive needs for sheer knowledge curiosity and for understanding the philosophical, theological, value-system-building explanation need. Finally, least well known are the impulses to beauty, symmetry, and possibly to simplicity, completion, and order, which we may call aesthetic needs, and the needs to express, to act out, and to motor completion that may be related to these aesthetic needs.
To date it seems as if all other needs or desires or drives are either means to the basic ends listed above, or are neurotic, or else are products of certain kinds of learning processes. Obviously the cognitive needs are of most concern to the philosopher of science. However, it is this latter theoretical urge that is more specifically a sine qua non for science, for sheer curiosity is seen often enough in animals , But the other motives are certainly also involved in science at all its stages.
It is too often overlooked that the original theorizers of science often thought of science primarily as a means to help the human race. Bacon 24 , for instance, expected much amelioration of disease and poverty from science. The feeling of identification and belongingness with people in general, and even more strongly the feeling of love for human beings may often be the primary motivation in many men o science.
Some people go into science, as they might into social work or medicine, in order to help people. A Psychological Approach to Science And then finally we must recognize that any other human need may serve as a primary motivation for going into science, for working at it, or for staying in it. It may serve as a living, a source of prestige, a means of self-expression, or as a satisfaction for any one of many neurotic needs.
In most persons, a single primary all-important motive is less often found than a combination in varying amounts of all motivations working simultaneously. It is safest to assume that in any single scientist his work is motivated not only by love, but also by simple curiosity, not only by prestige, but also by the need to earn money, etc.
Impulse is not necessarily in contrast with intelligent judgment, for intelligence is itself an impulse. In any case, it begins to appear more and more clearly that in the healthy human being, rational- ity and impulse are synergic, and strongly tend to come to similar con- cjusions rather than contrasting ones.
The noni-ational is not necessarily irrational or antirational; it is more often prorational. A chronic discrep- ancy or antagonism between conation and cognition is usually itself a product of social or individual pathology. Man's need for love or for respect is quite as "sacred" as hi need for the truth. Human nature dictates both and they need not even be dichotomized. It is easily possible to have fun in science and at the same time to do good. The Greek respect for reason was not wrong but only too exclusive.
Aristotle did not see that love is quite as human as reason. It can happen that the pure, objective, disinterested non- humanistic curiosity of the pure scientist may jeopardize the gratification of other equally important human needs, e. I refer here not only to the obvious atom bomb example but also to the more general fact that science itself implies a value system.
After all, the limit to which the 'pure" scientist approaches is not an Einstein or a Newton but rather the Nazi "scientist" of the concentration-camp experiments or the "mad" scientist of Hohl 'wood. A fuller, more humanistic and transcendental definition of truth and science may be found in 66, , Science for science's sake can be just as sick as art for art's sake. There is some- thing in science for all, old and young, bold and timid, duty-bound or fun loving.
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Explanations, analysis, and visualizations of Sing, Unburied, Sing 's themes. Sing, Unburied, Sing 's important quotes, sortable by theme, character, or chapter. Description, analysis, and timelines for Sing, Unburied, Sing 's characters. Explanations of Sing, Unburied, Sing 's symbols, and tracking of where they appear. An interactive data visualization of Sing, Unburied, Sing 's plot and themes. A first generation college student, she studied English at Stanford University, graduating in In her memoir Men We Reaped , Ward reflects on the lives of her younger brother and four other black men from her hometown who died young.
Like many poor people in the South, Michael and Leonie——as well as several other characters in the novel——use drugs as a way of coping with the poverty, racism, violence, and trauma that surrounds them. Michael is locked up in Parchman, seemingly on charges of possessing and distributing crystal meth. The fact that Pop and Richie were in Parchman also highlights the connection between drug use, poverty, racism, and incarceration. Even before the War on Drugs, black people were imprisoned en masse ever since the time of slavery.
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